Do you know what is in a forest? What are the characteristics of a temperate forest? How large is an ecosystem? What effects does disturbance have on an ecosystem? The following articles will answer your questions about a forest’s ecology. Read on to learn more! Here are some things to keep in mind when thinking about the ecosystem in a forest. Hopefully, you’ll have an idea of what to look for in a forest.
Ecology of tropical rainforests
In the 1960s, Hamilton developed the field of evolutionary ecology, making the study of plants the most popular aspect of tropical forest biology. Although animals had previously received the majority of attention in the field, the study of plant reproduction became more common fifteen years later. Among the many aspects of plant evolution, the most important of which involves interactions with animals and other species. Thus, a key topic in the field is co-evolution.
The relationship between climate and plant reproductive phenology is studied in tropical forests, including the lowland dipterocarp forest in Sarawak, Malaysia. In 1935, Tansley studied climate and soil in the classification of south-east Asian tropical lowland vegetation. In 2001, Turner published a book called Ecology of Tropical Rainforests of the Far East. Further, Whitmore and Tansley have written two books on the ecology of tropical rainforests, one on plant reproductive phenology and the other on the biology of the tropical mangrove forest.
In the case of the Philippines, traditional agriculture practices emphasized the preservation of a wide range of agricultural crops. In fact, in some villages, the number of varieties of upland rice varies by more than fifty percent. This diversity helps farmers compensate for variations in the environment. In contrast, modern agriculture often seeks to stabilize outputs by controlling the environment, but this is extremely difficult in the tropics. For this reason, researchers are increasingly recognizing the importance of ecosystem ecology in tropical rainforests.
Forest disturbances occur in many forms and causes the ecological succession that occurs. Fires are the most common cause of disturbance in rainforests, but they can also be caused by humans. Originally, humans were responsible for starting fires, but today, fires can be started by lightning or by natural disasters. Moreover, the rainforest does not burn easily and doesn’t adapt well to fire. Therefore, fires occur in rainforests more frequently than other types of land.
Characteristics of temperate forests
One of the characteristics of temperate forests is their near-zero carbon balance, meaning that they emit the same amount of carbon as they absorb. As such, they are a key carbon sink and are receiving increasing attention from scientists concerned with global climate change. Although temperate forests are relatively small, their carbon storage is large – a hundred to two hundred million Pg is estimated to be locked up in the vegetation and soils. The forests also show a large variation in composition among climatic zones, and gradients in soil bedrock properties.
In addition, temperate forests are dominated by deciduous trees, meaning that the leaves of these trees are shed during colder seasons. These leaves contain breathing pores, known as stomata. While the leaves lack the protective covering of pine needles, they can produce a pine-needle-like tannin when attacked by insects or other organisms. Mosses are found in temperate forests and are used as insulation during the cold winter months.
The C-N ratio of the soil was influenced by the type of tree and the amount of microbial activity. Soil properties and temperature sensitivity of soil respiration were also studied. Soil pH is important, as this largely determines the sensitivity of trees to climate change. Soil microbial activity in temperate forests is also influenced by temperature. Soil respiration rates increase with temperature, so a coniferous forest is more susceptible to climate warming than a deciduous one.
The canopy is the upper layer of the forest and has interlocking tree branches that block out most of the sunlight. The middle layer is composed of short trees of varying heights. Understory plants are common in temperate forests. Ecotones are transitional plant communities that separate different types of forest. During the winter months, temperatures in temperate forests can reach 70 degrees Fahrenheit. If the climate is too cold for the forest to sustain itself, it is not likely to grow.
Size of an ecosystem in a forest
An ecosystem is a community of living and non-living organisms in a given area. It can be small, like a single forest stand, or as large as the Great Barrier Reef. Ecosystems are also classified into three basic scales: micro, meso, and biome. The sizes of each vary, but the average for temperate forests is about 200 mgha-1. In tropical forests, maximum biomass can reach over 690 mgha-1. Recent allometric equations have been developed to estimate the biomass contribution of different ecosystems within a single forest stand.
The components of an ecosystem include the trees and other plants. The understory is the area where the most visible plant life occurs. It consists of fungi, seeds, and roots. The soil is the layer under the forest floor and is made up of various minerals and organic material. The larger the ecosystem, the greater the number of diverse species. This diversity helps the forest function by reducing disturbance and enhancing multi-trophic interactions. The presence of more species also improves the likelihood that certain traits, such as faster growth, better resistance, or a better abiotic environment will prevail.
Once a forest stands reaches a certain “self-exclusion” stage, competition is important. Self-thinning can reduce the number of stems by 90% in 50 years. However, the number of stems is largely determined by the average biomass of individual trees. In log-log plots, the slope of the log-log plots is approximately -3/2. Increasing average tree size reduces tree numbers.
Impact of disturbance on an ecosystem
There are a number of key ecological functions of forests. Changing disturbance regimes alter these functions in various ways. In particular, they alter the structure of the forest and its biotic communities, and may influence the successional development of the recovering vegetation for decades. Because disturbances often cause multiple effects, it is important to understand how they affect these functions, and how they might be remedied. Forests are diverse, but the effects of disturbances vary widely.
There are some positive effects of disturbance, such as increased herbivory and the destruction of dead trees. For example, the presence of aurochs helped repopulate the forest, as their trampling broke up the sward and pushed seeds to the ground, promoting seed germination and growth. Likewise, wild boars once played a key role in the forest. They root for food and create a seed bed, reducing the dominance of bracken. These disturbances, however, are also associated with disturbance of soil and bracken rhizomes, which can lead to the depletion of other trees.
The most prominent disturbance effects are caused by human activity, such as harvesting, logging, and fire. These disturbances cause the change in the species’ life cycle and can cause significant ecosystem changes. The frequency of disturbance also has a significant effect, as large disturbances can alter the composition of a forest’s species. A large number of disturbances will result in a variety of outcomes, ranging from a rapid recovery of disturbed patches to a prolonged decline in its species’ diversity.
A stand-replacing disturbance results in a decrease in species richness and functional dispersion of avifauna. On the other hand, a disturbance induced increase in understory plant species richness has a positive effect on arboreal marsupials and avifauna. Furthermore, disturbance-induced changes in hollow-bearing trees reduce the richness of arboreal marsupials and frogs, which may indicate increased habitat for insects and other animals.
Effects of soil microbial community structure on ecosystem
Changes in forest land-use and its influence on soil microbial communities may affect the functioning of the ecosystem. Tree species and diversity can alter the soil microbial community, particularly in the organic layer. However, the responses of these microbial communities to these changes are still poorly understood. In this study, we investigated the effects of tree species on soil microbial properties, particularly in two soil layers, and three different forest types.
The results revealed that the PLFA and BEST analyses showed that carbon content and CEC played an important role in determining the microbial community structure. The results also indicated that soil edaphic properties and the bacterial community structure were strongly related to N. Furthermore, the bacterial communities exhibited weak correlations to soil properties and did not show any significant relationships with these variables.
The PLFA profiles of soil in different forest types varied significantly. In natural forests, PLFAs in the organic layer were significantly different from those in the mineral layer. Furthermore, soil microbial communities were significantly affected by forest type and PT. In all three forest types, bacteria dominated the soil microbial community, accounting for 90% of the total PLFAs in soil. This may be attributable to the quality of the soil substrate in subalpine forests.
Although the bacterial and fungal community compositions of native forest and Teak forests did not change, the microbial community composition did show significant differences in specific taxa. These differences may be related to the N chemistry of native forest vs. Teak forest soils, for example, have higher N content than native forest soils. In addition, the fungal community diversity showed little change, indicating that the changes would take time to reveal any effects of the forest’s transformation.
Trying to decide which states border Michigan? You’re not alone! In fact, many people wonder about this exact same question. Below, you’ll learn more about the different states that share borders with Michigan. Find out which US states are the closest to Michigan and which are the furthest. After you’ve mastered these state-by-state comparisons, you can decide which ones to visit next. If you don’t know, you can always use our handy map to determine their distances.
Ohio
Ohio is the state in the Great Lakes region and is bordered by Michigan on the north and west. Lake Erie and the Ohio River run through the state. The Ohio River drains into Lake Erie, and the Miami River empties into the combined Ohio and Mississippi rivers. Muskingum River is channelized from Zanesville to Marietta. Besides rivers and lakes, Ohio has more than one hundred reservoirs for industrial and recreational use.
Historically, the state line between Michigan and Ohio has been disputed. The border was established in 1827 when Eleazer Kendrick conducted a boundary survey. He used wooden stakes as markers and the border spanned 104-105 miles. There are still many unresolved questions about where the border actually lies. The boundaries are not particularly precise, but most people accept the present spot as the border. However, there are some problems with the process.
The Ohio-Michigan boundary was hotly contested since 1830. The state’s seven-day case average reached nearly 7,000 in the fall and rose sharply this week. The Toledo Strip was a reference point for the boundary between the two states, which Michigan eventually accepted. As a result, the two states re-surveyed the boundary and repainted the lines with granite pillars. The result was a saw-tooth shape.
There are many differences between the border between Ohio and Michigan. One of them is that Ohio borders Lake Erie. Because it is bordered by Lake Erie, shipping from Toledo to Cincinnati can be troublesome. It’s important to remember that the border between the two states is a legal boundary. The two states have a long-standing rivalry, which has its roots in the 1800s. This conflict was a misunderstanding, and it led to many years of tension.
Indiana
In terms of topography, Indiana is divided into three main physical regions: the Great Lakes Plain, the Tipton Till Plain, and the Southern Hills and Lowlands. The northern part of the state is more flat, while the central part is mountainous. The southern part is a mix of flat and hilly areas with some sand dunes and ridges rising up to several hundred feet. In general, much of Indiana is flat, with farmland, but it does have some wetlands.
The landscape of Indiana is largely flat and flood-prone, with several types of vegetation and animals. Its autumn colors are one of the most attractive parts of the state. The beautiful fall foliage found in Indiana’s forests is especially picturesque. In addition to trees, ferns and other plants are plentiful in Indiana’s forests. The state also has prairie regions with many types of herbaceous plants. Among these are goldenrod and bluestem grasses.
The boundary between Indiana and its neighbor, Wisconsin, is disputed. Residents of that state recently threatened to wage war over state boundaries with Ohio. In addition, a border dispute with Wisconsin landed in the U.S. Supreme Court. But the boundaries between Indiana and Michigan are largely clear. Even if a dispute arises regarding the border, it will be resolved by a passionate group of surveyors. In fact, the Michigan state legislature is poised to set aside funds for the project in the upcoming state budget.
The climate in Indiana is temperate. The temperatures in January and February can drop to below zero. In the summer, however, temperatures can rise as high as eighty degrees. However, the temperatures are pleasant throughout the year. Highs in the summer are about 80 degrees while lows drop to thirty. While rainfall in Indiana is fairly constant, the amount of snowfall is higher than in other parts of the state. If the weather is unfavorable, it is best to avoid visiting this region in the spring.
Although Indiana is largely white, its population is diverse. A large percentage of its residents are Roman Catholics. Despite this, Jews make up a tiny fraction of the population. In addition, there are small communities of people of African descent in the north. This group includes the city of Gary and the surrounding counties. Its Amish community is located in Daviess county in southwest Indiana. If you are wondering where to get Indiana, this is a place to visit.
Wisconsin
In addition to the border between Minnesota and Wisconsin, two of the world’s largest lakes lie within its borders. Lake Superior covers the largest expanse of freshwater on earth, and Lake Michigan is the largest lake entirely within the United States. Together with the watershed that stretches across the entire region, the lakes and their tributaries form the largest ecosystem on Earth. Combined, these two bodies of water support wildlife and habitat in both countries.
The Upper Peninsula (also known as “Upper Michigan”), is higher than the lower portion. The Straits of Mackinac separate it from the Lower Peninsula. The northern part of the Upper Peninsula borders the Canadian province of Ontario. Much of its southern shoreline is bounded by Lakes Michigan and Huron. On the other side, the state of Wisconsin stretches into the Upper Peninsula. The St. Clair River, which separates the Upper and Lower peninsulas, runs through the state.
Geographically, Wisconsin is divided into six physical regions. The northern Highland is an upland underlain by granitic bedrock. The high point of Wisconsin is Timms Hill in Price county. From there, the state’s central plain is a crescent-shaped area of sandstone and limestone. On the western side of the state, the Western Upland is a narrow region etched by streams through limestones and sandstones.
In addition to Lake Michigan and Lake Superior, the state also shares border lines with Illinois and Indiana. The Ohio border is the most contentious, with a dispute over the Toledo Strip in 1835. In the Upper Peninsula, however, the border between the states is largely peaceful. The state capital is Madison. But, be aware that Wisconsin borders Minnesota and Iowa. It is important to remember that these borders are shared by the upper peninsula of Michigan, because it is home to many residents of those states.
Despite this ambiguity, the Michigan-Wisconsin boundary was finally established in 1936. In 1847, an American geographer, William A. Burt, under the direction of Lucius Lyon, surveyed part of the border. He took the contract on April 27 and completed the survey during the summer months. The printed report was not accompanied by Burt’s field notes, but Lyon promised to forward them later. The result was a decision that awarded 360 square miles of land to Wisconsin and gave the state a larger land area than it actually had.
Pennsylvania
The state of Pennsylvania is located in eastern North America, bordering both New York and Michigan. The state is home to fifty Fortune 500 companies, including Walmart, U.S. Steel, PPG Industries, and H.J. Heinz. The Pennsylvania State Police is the primary law enforcement agency in the Commonwealth. Pennsylvania also boasts over four thousand universities and colleges, including Penn State University. Approximately five million people live in the state, including over one million people in Philadelphia and Erie.
Pennsylvania has a humid continental climate, with wide seasonal temperature variations. The prevailing winds are from the west and average temperatures in July are seventy degrees Fahrenheit. Pennsylvania experiences a growing season that varies from two hundred and twenty days in the southeast to ninety days in the north-central region. The state averages around 40 inches of precipitation per year, and the passage of cyclone fronts influences daily weather.
The region between the two states is named the Appalachian Plateau. This area has long valleys and parallel ridges aligned over a long distance. The Allegheny Front, at one thousand and fifty-six feet high, is one of the biggest obstacles to east-west transportation in Pennsylvania. It is characterized by numerous hills and valleys, including the famous Mount Davis, which reaches over 3,000 feet in elevation.
While the area around Pennsylvania was densely forested and covered with trees when European colonization began, it has been heavily developed since. In fact, three-fourths of the state was cleared of forest by 1900. This means that vast portions of farmland have been abandoned and replaced with forest. Today, half of Pennsylvania is wooded, while small areas of virgin forest remain. The state lies in the transition zone between northern and southern forests, and the predominant trees are maples, birch trees, oaks, and yellow poplars.
The economy of Pennsylvania has shifted through three distinct periods since its first settlement. During the Industrial Revolution, the domestic population was unable to provide enough labour. As a result, Pennsylvania became the center of massive immigration, bringing more than a million new immigrants to the state. Immigration continued into the 20th century, with the arrival of African Americans. Today, African Americans represent one-tenth of the state’s population. Additionally, Hispanics, Native Americans, and Asians comprise a tiny fraction of the total population.
